1002: Ethelred the Unready orders the St Brice's Day Massacre - the murder of all Danes in England.
1941: Aircraft carrier HMS 'Ark Royal' is torpedoed en route to Malta by a German U-boat, sinking the next day.
1942: US 'liberty ship' production reaches its peak with a single 10,500 ton ship built in less than five days.
First siege
In 1940, in the early months of World War Two, Malta had been the centrepiece of Britain's strategic naval position in the Mediterranean for almost a century and a half. There were, however, serious doubts over its continued status as such. The power of the Italian Air Force cast its shadow over the island, and it was considered that no longer could Malta provide the main base for Britain's Mediterranean Fleet.
It was therefore decided that this would henceforth have to operate from Alexandria, in Egypt, leaving the French Navy to dominate the western Mediterranean. This was not to be, however, as in May 1940 the French signed an armistice with Germany, thus obliging Britain to replace French power in the area with 'Force H' at Gibraltar. And soon the defence of Malta itself against Axis attack became a major role for both British naval squadrons.
... soon the defence of Malta itself against Axis attack became a major role ...
The Italian Air Force was not in the end as powerful as it had seemed at first, and the Italian Navy was not able on its own to prevent the movement of Allied shipping in the central Mediterranean. Consequently, a small number of British fighters, first of all a handful of Sea Gladiators taken over by the RAF, and then a larger number of Hurricanes, were able to limit the extent of the air attacks both on Malta itself and on Allied shipping.
Malta thus held out, and became a base from which Axis supply lines to North Africa could be interdicted by Allied air, submarine and surface forces. In early 1941 Germany again tried to bomb the island into submission, and almost succeeded, but in the summer the Luftwaffe was called away to more pressing business in Russia.
At the same time Italian cyphers were penetrated by the Allies, and the information gained in this way helped Malta-based aircraft and submarines to claim more successes against Germany. Rommel, the German commander in North Africa, had good cause to be worried.
Force K
Fighters leave their trail above a hospital in Malta © Despite their successes, however, Allied aircraft and submarines could not inflict sufficient damage on Axis forces to hamper them significantly. This required surface naval forces, as Churchill quickly realised. So quite soon Force 'K' was established, with the cruisers Aurora and Penelope and destroyers Lance and Lively. The ships came together at Valetta on Trafalgar Day 1941, commanded by Captain WG Agnew.
In November they destroyed an entire German convoy of seven merchant ships, along with an escorting destroyer. Three more destroyers were also damaged, one of them being finished off by the submarine Upholder. At a single stroke Force 'K' had knocked out the equivalent of half the supply line of the enemy's North African armies. The Italians suspended convoys and announced that Tripoli was 'practically blockaded'.
... in November, the Axis supply route suffered over 60 per cent losses.
With their forces in North Africa under pressure as a result of the 'Crusader' offensive, the German High Command insisted that further supply ships should sail in place of those lost, but Force 'K' effectively dealt with them. In the light of this success, Churchill prodded the Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean to reinforce Agnew with another force of two light cruisers, Ajax and Neptune and two 'K' class destroyers, with the result that, in November, the Axis supply route suffered over 60 per cent losses.
Only 30,000 tons of supplies were delivered to German forces in North Africa, and British code breakers were gratified to hear reports of a real danger from fuel shortages for the enemy. In December, Axis aircraft in North Africa could only fly one sortie per day, and Rommel was forced to retreat to shorten his supply lines.
1941: Aircraft carrier HMS 'Ark Royal' is torpedoed en route to Malta by a German U-boat, sinking the next day.
1942: US 'liberty ship' production reaches its peak with a single 10,500 ton ship built in less than five days.
First siege
In 1940, in the early months of World War Two, Malta had been the centrepiece of Britain's strategic naval position in the Mediterranean for almost a century and a half. There were, however, serious doubts over its continued status as such. The power of the Italian Air Force cast its shadow over the island, and it was considered that no longer could Malta provide the main base for Britain's Mediterranean Fleet.
It was therefore decided that this would henceforth have to operate from Alexandria, in Egypt, leaving the French Navy to dominate the western Mediterranean. This was not to be, however, as in May 1940 the French signed an armistice with Germany, thus obliging Britain to replace French power in the area with 'Force H' at Gibraltar. And soon the defence of Malta itself against Axis attack became a major role for both British naval squadrons.
... soon the defence of Malta itself against Axis attack became a major role ...
The Italian Air Force was not in the end as powerful as it had seemed at first, and the Italian Navy was not able on its own to prevent the movement of Allied shipping in the central Mediterranean. Consequently, a small number of British fighters, first of all a handful of Sea Gladiators taken over by the RAF, and then a larger number of Hurricanes, were able to limit the extent of the air attacks both on Malta itself and on Allied shipping.
Malta thus held out, and became a base from which Axis supply lines to North Africa could be interdicted by Allied air, submarine and surface forces. In early 1941 Germany again tried to bomb the island into submission, and almost succeeded, but in the summer the Luftwaffe was called away to more pressing business in Russia.
At the same time Italian cyphers were penetrated by the Allies, and the information gained in this way helped Malta-based aircraft and submarines to claim more successes against Germany. Rommel, the German commander in North Africa, had good cause to be worried.
Force K
Fighters leave their trail above a hospital in Malta © Despite their successes, however, Allied aircraft and submarines could not inflict sufficient damage on Axis forces to hamper them significantly. This required surface naval forces, as Churchill quickly realised. So quite soon Force 'K' was established, with the cruisers Aurora and Penelope and destroyers Lance and Lively. The ships came together at Valetta on Trafalgar Day 1941, commanded by Captain WG Agnew.
In November they destroyed an entire German convoy of seven merchant ships, along with an escorting destroyer. Three more destroyers were also damaged, one of them being finished off by the submarine Upholder. At a single stroke Force 'K' had knocked out the equivalent of half the supply line of the enemy's North African armies. The Italians suspended convoys and announced that Tripoli was 'practically blockaded'.
... in November, the Axis supply route suffered over 60 per cent losses.
With their forces in North Africa under pressure as a result of the 'Crusader' offensive, the German High Command insisted that further supply ships should sail in place of those lost, but Force 'K' effectively dealt with them. In the light of this success, Churchill prodded the Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean to reinforce Agnew with another force of two light cruisers, Ajax and Neptune and two 'K' class destroyers, with the result that, in November, the Axis supply route suffered over 60 per cent losses.
Only 30,000 tons of supplies were delivered to German forces in North Africa, and British code breakers were gratified to hear reports of a real danger from fuel shortages for the enemy. In December, Axis aircraft in North Africa could only fly one sortie per day, and Rommel was forced to retreat to shorten his supply lines.